These written works and American Transcendentalism shaped American knowledge and opinion about Hinduism for much of the 19th century. The postural yoga community in the United States is largely a fitness- and health-oriented industry, but nevertheless 63 percent of all North Americans believe that yoga is a spiritual practice.34 In 2008, the HAF initiated its Take Back Yoga campaign because it recognized that Yoga Journal, one of the leading magazines for the postural yoga community, often referenced Hindu scriptures but referred to them as “ancient” or “Indian,” never Hindu. Prominent transcendentalist writers and thinkers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, were also … Many of the current immigrants came following a new immigration law enacted in 1965that abolished a quota system. This sentiment was also inextricable from racist North American policies of the time that were threatened by nonwhite immigrants and concerned to retain white, European, Christian dominance in both the United States and Canada. India is a country of extreme diversity, with geographic localities governing religious practices and language. The new immigrants wanted to practice of their fait… 19. 21. 35. Only 5% have been divorced. Because of U.S. selective immigration policies, the immigrants who were accepted were largely skilled workers with technological skills in engineering, medicine, and computer science. The hybrid or hyphenated identity that emerges (Indian American/Hindu American) from the adoption and valorization of native culture and religiosity confirms the appropriate ethnic status on immigrants now positioned in culturally recognizable intellectual spaces. They were families concerned about maintaining their cultural and religious traditions. Outside traditional forms of home altars, temple worship, and festivals, there are many ways in which Hinduism has influenced American culture. According to Hinduism Today, this number can be up to 2.4 million. B. Nagarkar said, “The fundamental, spiritual ideal of the Brahmo-Somaj is belief in the existence of one true God.” He presented the theism of the Brahmo-Samaj as the religion of eclecticism, wholly inclusive and not exclusive.17 Vivekananda was also one of the few representatives at the World’s Parliament of Religions who publicly criticized Christian missionary activity in his home country, despite the liberal Protestant allegiances of the parliament’s leadership. Today, there are about 2.4 million Hindus who have made America their home. One activist claimed that the VHPA alone has 2,600 websites on the Internet.30. Our historical context is also unique for another important reason. Latest and strongest evidence of the Vedic connection and influence in the Maya culture of Mexico and Central America. 1. Hinduism is considered a minority religion in the United States.American Hindus … Despite this unconditional acceptance of a plurality of methods to reach the divine, the Vedanta Society theology emphasizes the three paths highlighted in the Bhagavad Gītā: jñāna yoga, the path of knowledge; karma yoga, the path of action; and bhakti yoga, the path of devotion, as well as rājā yoga, the path of concentration. It is fai… There are so many misconceptions and misunderstandings. No, there is no concept of divorce in Hinduism but Indian law allows Hindus to have divorce under certain conditions. Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 172. Despite a failed alliance with Dayananda Saraswati of the Arya Samaj after traveling to India in 1880, the organization proceeded to establish one of the most prolific publishing houses emphasizing the spiritual intersections between East and West. It continues to espouse a theology that resembles Vivekananda’s teachings, namely, the neo-Vedantic teachings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, drawing on Upaniṣadic theological premises. They submitted edits with the support of the Vedic Foundation (VF) and the American Hindu Education Foundation (HEF), which aimed to correct factual errors but also to eliminate any reference to caste, polytheism, or the Aryan Invasion theory. The average is 1 in 10 in the USA. The large majority of gurus who have proselytized and become popular in the United States have espoused a form of neo-Vedantic theology, which arose in popularity in the Hindu reform movements of the 19th century. BAPS Swaminarayan Hinduism provided the temple infrastructure and opulence that many Hindus in the United States were lacking. These Indian yogis became embodied articulations of the stereotypes of Asiatic magicians, snake charmers, and magical yogis, who could manipulate matter, both internal and external. Many of the early Hindu emissaries to the United States drew on ideological confluences between Christian and Hindu universalism. About Hinduism in America. This practice raised the profile for ISKCON in the North American public sphere while it raised money for the organization and spread the teachings of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, filtered through the perspective of Prabhupada. Mata Amritanandamayi also has a large ashram in the exurbs of San Francisco, as well as dozens of others across the country. Even gurus who never set foot on American soil, like Shirdi Sai Baba, Sathya Sai Baba, and Anandamayi Ma, have drawn in sizable populations of North American followers. For example, in New York, Texas, and New Jersey, where there were concentrations of Hindu populations, sectarian groups began to raise capital in order to support temples dedicated to specific sectarian traditions. Thousands of students travel to the USA every year for higher education. The guru movements that flourished in the countercultural spiritual experimentation of the long decade of the 1960s continue to draw followers today. E. Burke Rochford, Hare Krishna in America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1985); Larry Shinn, The Dark Lord: Cult Images and the Hare Krishna’s in America (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1987); Edwin E. Bryant and Maria L. Ekstrand, eds. They espouse their distinct theologies and practices but flavor them with ecumenism, fostered by the ideal that all religions are ultimately one. They diminished the importance of temple and domestic rituals, sacrifice, personal devotion to the multiplicity of Hindu deities, and priestly class and caste hierarchies among their North American audiences. In the United States, Vivekananda’s legacy found a home in the Vedanta Societies that he established and that continue to flourish in the present day. American Trinitarian missionaries financially supported and sustained the Baptist missions at Serampore in Bengal, while the Unitarians attempted to align liberal Protestant universalism with the monism of neo-Vedanta. However, it is also important to recognize that because of the marginalization of guru-led religious communities in general, they have historically been subjected to scandalous, yet fanciful accusations by leaders in the dominant strains of American religion. Hinduism in the United States contains both universal ecumenism and the particular veneration of personal deities. Before that the presence of Hinduism in the USA was negligible. After that, the number of Hindus going to the USA and settling there increased tremendously. He systematized his thought and built a religious organization, the Self-Realization Fellowship, which has since become one of the most institutionalized forms of guru-led Hinduism in the United States. There were about 1700 Hindus in the USA in the year 1900. Pierre Bernard, a white man who coined himself the “Omnipotent Oom,” taught students a version of tantra yogic practice that became wildly successful and controversial. They are a part of a much broader movement from within the political mobilization of an aggressive Hindu nationalism within India that aims to silence any critique of the nation-state or its dominant religion of Hinduism. He also hybridized Christian and Hindu worship practices, founding churches with pews, Sunday congregational gatherings, hymns and hymnals, and rich garden spaces for meditation and yoga practice, prayer, and contemplation. The CSBE issued revisions that attempted to assuage all parties but satisfied few. 2. Hinduism in South America is found in several countries, but is strongest in the Indo-Caribbean populations of Guyana and Suriname.There are about 550,000 Hindus in South America, chiefly the descendants of Indian indentured laborers in the Guianas.There are about 270,000 Hindus in Guyana, 120,000 in Suriname, and some others in French Guiana.In Guyana and Suriname, Hindus form the … Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Religion. 39. Some of them were open and welcoming toward the general public, while others were protectionist and exclusive to devotees only. When the edits were submitted for scholarly review, a mixed group of American scholars (including Indian and non-Indian members) were concerned that the VF and the HEF were attempting to rewrite history and the extant hierarchies and ritual practices of Hinduism as it exists in India. They make up 15 percent of the world’s population, with 93 percent of Hindus in India. This is the whole of religion. The Encyclopedia of Hinduism was sponsored by the India Heritage Research Foundation (based in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania), referenced in Prema Kurien, A Place at the Multicultural Table: The Development of an American Hinduism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 51. Hare Krishnas (ISKCON devotees) soon became known for their public presence in the United States, as they gathered in airports, parks, and on street corners in their traditional Hindu dress, chanting the māhāmantra and passing out scriptures (most of which are productions of ISKCON itself) to passersby in exchange for small donations. Many of the current immigrants came following a new immigration law enacted in 1965that abolished a quota system. The software boom further added to it and the number of Hindus getting green cards increased significantly. This monism drew on simplified Upaniṣadic teachings of the similitude of Ātman (the essence of self) and Brahman (the essence of the universe) and from this claimed that the same divinity comprises all of existence. 13. Michelle Goldberg, The Goddess Pose: The Audacious Life of Indra Devi, the Woman Who Helped Bring Yoga to the West (New York: Knopf, 2015). 51. Williamson, Transcendent in America; and Lola Williamson and Ann Gleig, Homegrown Gurus: From Hinduism in America to American Hinduism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2014). This emphasis on controlling the educational instruction about Hinduism largely derives from a fear of misrepresentation. 48. The second kind of Hinduism that has grown in America since the 1960s is what I would call “temple-Hinduism,” brought by immigrants from India and the Caribbean. See also Edward Waldo Emerson, ed., The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904), (particularly v. 2 and 3). This era also encouraged non-Indian Americans to don the religious and cultural apparatus of yoga and Indian mysticism, in efforts to draw power from the prevalent orientalist tropes of the day. Today, there are approximately 450 Hindu temples in the United States. Hindus prefer to leave in peace with the native people in whichever country they go to. Many of these gurus drew their practices in some fashion from the Indic teachings of yoga. Some Hindu groups, such as the Dharma Civilization Foundation (which also has connections to Hindu nationalist groups, such as the RSS and VHP) aim to reclaim scholarship in the field of Hinduism for scholar-practitioners and to reframe the study of Hinduism within indigenous epistemologies. Like their European contemporaries, North Americans balked at what they viewed to be the bloody, sexualized, cacophonic, ritualized, and superstitious practices of the Hindus. It has also strategically focused on building elaborate and ornate temple complexes in major urban centers. The most common religious event in which Hindus participate is Diwali, the festival of lights, with nearly ubiquitous participation. The Hindu American Foundation (HAF) is hoping to educate the general American population about Hinduism. Carl T. Jackson, Vedanta for the West: The Ramakrishna Movement in the United States (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Gauri Viswanathan, “‘Have Animals Souls?’ Theosophy and the Suffering Body,” PMLA 126.2 (2011): 440–447; and “The Ordinary Business of Occultism,” Critical Inquiry, 27.1 (Autumn 2000): 1–20; Gary Lachman, Madame Blavatsky: The Mother of Modern Spirituality (New York: TarcherPerigree, 2012); and Smriti Srinivas, A Place for Utopia: Urban Designs from South Asia (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015). 52. As more and more Hindus settled there, they started building new Hindu temples. The second kind of Hinduism that has grown in America since the 1960s is what I would call “temple-Hinduism,” brought by immigrants from India and the Caribbean. The majority of accounts of Hinduism in North America begin with the cataclysmic events of the World’s Parliament of Religions at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. But, it seems to me, such efforts are doomed to fail. Lola Williamson’s Transcendent in America and Williamson and Ann Gleig’s edited volume Homegrown Gurus both attempt to systematize and analyze the various roles of gurus in the United States.47 Karen Pechelis edited a volume addressing female gurus in India and in the United States, The Graceful Guru, and Thomas Forsthoefel and Cynthia Ann Humes compiled another, Gurus in America, addressing the most influential gurus.48 Arthur Versluis’s book American Gurus includes several gurus who have not been fully addressed by the literature.49 At the more popular level, Philip Goldberg’s American Veda has been instrumental in telling the intricacies of American Hinduism, often through the lens of the developments initiated by guru-led movements.50 There are also several important books that focus on one particular guru and his or her movement in the United States: Hugh Urban’s book on Osho/Bhagvan Rajneesh, Zorba the Buddha, and Amanda Lucia’s book on Mata Amritanandamayi (Amma), Reflections of Amma, both focus on the North American context, while Smriti Srinivas’s In the Presence of Sai Baba devotes a chapter to satsangs (congregational gatherings) in Atlanta, Georgia.51 Several influential books focus on the Hare Krishnas (ISKCON) in the United States: E. Burke Rochford’s Hare Krishna in America, Larry Shinn’s The Dark Lord, and Edwin Bryant and Maria Ekstrand’s edited volume The Hare Krishna Movement.52 With regard to modern postural yoga, both Elizabeth de Mechilis’s A History of Modern Yoga and Mark Singleton’s Yoga Body have studied its global spread, and Andrea Jain’s Selling Yoga focuses particularly on the context of the United States.53. Often combinative factors influenced their downfall, from the spurious actions of individual leaders to institutionalized systems of abuse and neglect. In addition to providing services to their local members, these organizations network on a national level through conferences, such as the Future of Hindu Dharma in North America conference for representatives from Hindu organizations held at the University of Central Florida in 2007. Srinivas Aravamudan, Guru English: South Asian Religion in a Cosmopolitan Language (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 40. Can they marry again after divorce? Brian Pennington, Was Hinduism Invented? They have become epicenters for the Hindu community and cultural and religious ambassadors of Hinduism for the general public. The divorce rate amongst Hindus is lowest compared to other communities in the United States. When these immigrants arrived, they found limited resources for the expression of traditional forms of Hinduism available in the United States. 41. Supercargo trading routes between North America and China and India required American employees to be stationed in both countries to manage trade operations.4 In addition to commerce, Christians from North America were some of the first missionaries to establish residence in India when the British began to open its borders to foreign religious interventions. To these roots, they added physical motions from the traditional Indian sport of wrestling, Indian bodybuilding, and even Swedish gymnastics and European esoteric dance.33 The result was a new form of bodily movement that focused on the fitness, health, and wellness of the body and mind. Similarly, Swami Kripalu (Amrit Desai) also founded an ashram community wherein devotees were encouraged to adopt yogic and meditative practices, but they were not expected to undergo a formal conversion. At this time, the majority of North Americans accessed information about Hinduism through books and publications, rather than contact with Hindus. Rammohan Roy understood that Hindu customs were viewed alternately with abhorrence and fascination by the British colonial government and American onlookers. Nevertheless, despite restrictive immigration policy and nativist public sentiments, several Hindu emissaries from India entered the North American scene to build on Vivekananda’s legacy. Hinduism is in essence a pagan religion, meaning that its real subject is the self rather than a universal God (as in, what do I have to do to get to Heaven). Because of the secular culture and tolerant people, Hinduism would surely flourish more in the United States. The 1910s and 1920 saw broad abuses against Indian Sikh workers (who were classified as “Hindoos”) as they were pushed from Canada to the United States and then subsequently forced to flee from violent mobs of anti-immigrant protestors southward from Washington to Oregon and into California’s Central Valley. Leaders of the Brahmo Samaj (Madras: G. A. Natesan, 1926), 16. These umbrella Hindu organizations are one of the most vital arenas for the construction of Hinduism in North America, because they are explicitly engaged in knowledge-building projects, from elementary curricula to monitoring the production of Hinduism through academic publications and university-level instruction. There is also a practical aspect, in that often it is the donors who contribute financially to the construction of the temple who determine which deities are installed. Do this either by work, or worship or psychic control, or philosophy—by one, or more, or all of these—and be free. Devotees adopted devotional attitudes toward both Prabhupada and the Hindu god Krishna, and they were encouraged to express that devotion through the study of Gaudiya Vaishnava scriptures and the recitation of mantras, particularly the māhāmantra (Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare). However, public opinion on this question, as well as the role of God, prayer and religion varies by country, region and economic development. Raymond Brady Williams, ed., A Sacred Thread: Modern Transmissions of Hindu Traditions in India and Abroad (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992); Diana Eck, A New Religious America: How a “Christian Country” Has Become the World’s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (San Francisco: Harper, 2002); Stephen Prothero, A Nation of Religions: The Politics of Pluralism in Multireligious America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Rachel Fell McDermott and Jeffrey Kripal, Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); John Zavos et al., eds., Public Hinduisms (New Delhi: SAGE, 2012); Brian Hatcher, Hinduism in the Modern World (London: Routledge, 2015); and Raymond Brady Williams and Yogi Trivedi, eds., Swaminarayan Hinduism: Tradition, Adaptation, and Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Like many other “ethnic church” spaces, they largely conform to American Protestant norms, such as hosting congregational gatherings on Sundays that involve preaching and hymns. Evidence exists that the British catapulted the importance of the term and the category of Hinduism and instrumentalized it in the modern construction of world religions.2 There is also evidence that Indian Hindus collaborated in the discursive production of the category, employing long-standing indigenous religious ideals and practices to constitute its contents. Rather, the story of Hinduisms in America provides an important example for the ways a religious tradition is imagined in America. Conversely, Baptist journals, such as the Christian Watchman, issued scathing polemics against him.7 While the Unitarians lauded his contribution, Trinitarian Christians balked at the “heathen” who presumed to “meddle” in the Christian religion.8 The Brahmo Samaj was at the epicenter of the Hindu reform movement that sought to defend Hinduism from the onslaught of missionary attacks. Tomoko Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). Christianity reigned supreme in America, and all else bordered dangerously on heathenism. Devotees revered their gurus not only as charismatic leaders but often as infallible divine persons, which meant that when accusations of misconduct were levied, they were rarely believed initially by fellow community members. 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